Take a journey through the history of printed music.
Music had to start somewhere….
Have you ever come across a song or a symphony and wondered...Where did this come from? How did it make its way to me? This article was inspired by these questions.
Johann Gutenberg's moveable-type printing press (for more, see this article by Heather Whipps) allowed for many innovations in the process of bookmaking, which also accelerated the distribution of printed music. Processes, practices, events, materials, technologies, and individuals significant to the industry will all be investigated to determine how music printing came to be in its modern form as we know it today.
In the early decades before Gutenberg's press, music manuscripts were produced primarily by hand. These manuscripts were inspired by both religious and secular subjects. As early as the third century, liturgical chant melodies were being transmitted exclusively in an oral capacity. It would take nearly six centuries before these chant melodies would be written down. The first representation of this written music came in the form of “neumes” or symbols that implied melodic direction. Neume symbols were placed above notes to indicate a direction in which the melody should progress, a shape it should take, rather than specific notes or pitches. Evidence also suggests that chants were composed both in free and structured styles, such as in the image below (Image 1).
In A History of Western Music, Peter J. Burkholder highlights the biggest advantage of solidifying a system of notation for the liturgical chants. He notes that this "new notation" gave music new freedom of expression as a written medium, an achievement that "was crucial for the history of Western music".
The Printing Process
In his article Printing and Publishing of Music, Stanley Boorman suggests that, overall, music printing followed similar if not identical processes of book printing in its early history. Evidence of woodblock printing and press printing are both seen in musical examples from the early 13th century. Boorman suggests that some graining can be detected in early printings which could suggest the use of woodblock printing, but this is not definitive. The website Music Printing History shows different printing processes in detail, including woodblock prints, lithographs, moveable type, and engraving.
Videos (click on underlined text to access links)
Demonstration of moveable type being used, courtesy of the Crandall Historical Printing Museum.
Demonstration of engraving on metal plates, courtesy of Henleverlag, a publishing company located in Munich, Germany.
Music Printing in Italy: 1500-1700
By 1501, Ottavino Petrucci had published the first known piece of polyphonic music printed entirely using movable type (see a similar example here). Burkholder describes it this way:
"Petrucci used a triple-impression process, in which each sheet went through the press three times: once to print the staff lines, another time to print the words, and a third to print the notes and florid initials. His method was labor-intensive and costly, but his results were models of clarity and accuracy."[1]
Alongside Petrucci’s landmark printing came music books disseminated by large printing houses headquartered primarily in Venice. Over time, printers from Germany and France migrated to Italy to compete with the industry. Two methods emerged out of Italy. Petrucci’s “triple-pass” method and a single-press method introduced by Pierre Attaingnant in Paris.[2]
Music Printing in Britain: 1700-1900
In London, German composer George Frederic Handel became popular with his Italian operas and later his oratorios. In April 1742, Handel premiered his oratorio Messiah in Dublin, Ireland to resounding critical acclaim. Handel’s popularity influenced the music printing industry immensely. In Handel, Walsh, and the Publication of 'Messiah' , Donald Burrows analyzed one of the first publications of Messiah, a set of plates dating to 1743. He examined events surrounding the creation of these plates as well as their use during the publication process. What he found supports Boorman’s claim that music was printed in a similar process to books (see Boorman).[3]
Burrows discovered evidence of multiple engravers. Plates were engraved at different times, in differing styles, and in inconsistent sections (some were left blank). Even the smallest elements, such as an accidental or lettering could identify a specific engraver’s work. The sharp accidental in an engraving can either be shaped diagonally or vertically. This shows how individualized early engravings could be as they made their way to the printing press (see Burrows).
Though engraving was a popular method of reproduction at this time, letterpress printing and manuscript copying were still being practiced in the latter part of the 18th century. The use of moveable type and typing blocks were also still popular. Despite all this innovation, only one of the major European publishing houses would survive into the nineteenth century with its printing practice intact…Breitkopf & Härtel.
Breitkopf & Härtel
Breitkopf & Härtel was founded by Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf in 1719. His son Johann continued Bernhard’s tradition of innovation in printing machines and printing techniques, making Breitkopf & Härtel a mainstay in music printing throughout the 19th century. Their biggest contribution to date came through their unrivaled critical editions of important works (see Plesske).
Breitkopf & Härtel editions are characterized by a “punch” system of music notation pioneered by Johann Breitkopf in 1754. As described by Boorman, part of the form was no larger than one staff line, so that each component (i.e. notes, rests, numbers, etc.) was assembled through a series of punches, and each precisely set so that it would fit within the form. Rather than assemble forms line by line, the compositor would use a mosaic type approach, imitating the formation of a puzzle. This method was time-consuming, but the result was a condensed, concise, and readable sheet of music (see Image 2 below), which is why Breitkopf was able to release larger editions of important works (see Boorman).
Breitkopf & Härtel continued to operate well into the 20th century, most notably with its publication of the complete works of Johannes Brahms in 1926. Subsequent publishers of the 20th century include Bärenreiter, G. Henle Musikverlag, E.F. Kalmus, and Boosey & Hawkes.
Video (click on underlined text to access link)
Bärenreiter - Conductor and musicologist Christopher Hogwood goes behind the scenes at Bärenreiter-Verlag, courtesy of Bärenreiter-Verlag Karl Vötterle GmbH & Co. KG
Music Typewriters and Modern Technology
The latter half of the 20th century saw evolutions in technology that were yet unsurpassed in their ambition for improvement, convenience, and efficiency. One such innovation was the music typewriter, bringing with it a new approach to music printing.
The Musicwriter, invented by Cecil Effinger in 1946, became a well-known predecessor to modern computer engraving technology, especially among private collectors. With Musicwriter II, created circa 1988, the electronic age of music printing was born. From the 1980s on, electronic printing and engraving consumed the publication market, with many publishers digitizing their original patens for use with electronics. Programs such as Finale, Sibelius, MusiComp, and several others revolutionized how professional musicians, music students, and composers published their music (Images 3 and 4 shown above).[4]
Conclusion
The journey of music printing evolved through many different ideas, materials, and processes. Innovators and inventors used their ingenuity to evolve with the changing world around them through necessity and the use of their innate abilities. As a result, music has become more accessible and useful than ever before. Through changes in technology, musicians and composers now have faster and easier methods of producing and engaging with their creations and sharing that creativity with those around them. The realization of the need for printed music has begun a revolution that will continue for decades to come.
Footnotes
[1] Peter J. Burkholder et al., A History of Western Music, (New York: Norton, 2010), 164-165. [2] Burkholder et al., 164.
[3] Burkholder et al., 456-458; 456-458. Handel served as music director for the Royal Academy of Music in London, a company created specifically to produce Italian operas for the London stage. The King’s Theatre was one of his most widely used venues.
[4] There are several known iterations of the typewriter, but one notable version is the Keaton Music Typewriter, created by Robert H. Keaton in San Francisco. His machine was developed mainly for use by individuals and small publishing firms, while Armando Dal Molin created a more commercial version in Italy in 1945. He later patented it in 1951 for use in the United States.
Image 1. Unknown composer, The Gradual Viderunt omnes in Solemes notation, Burkholder et al., 2010.
Image 2. Title page of Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, Op. 13, “Sonata Pathétique” by Ludwig van Beethoven, Ludwig van Beethovens Werke, Serie 16, Nr.131, Breitkopf & Härtel, 1862.
Image 3. Image of the Musicwriter II, attributed to Cecil Effinger, ca. 1988.
Image 4. Music printed using Musicwriter II, attributed to Cecil Effinger, ca. 1988.
References
Bärenreiter-Verlag Karl Vötterle GmbH & Co. KG. “Bärenreiter Urtext (English version).” YouTube video, 17:47. December 5, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzzosvTN27U
Boorman, Stanley, Eleanor Selfridge-Field, and Donald W. Krummel. 2001. "Printing and publishing of music." Grove Music Online. Accessed 26 Sep. 2019. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000040101
Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palisca. 2010. A History of Western Music. 8th ed. New York: Norton. Also available online: https://wwnorton.com/books/A-History-of-Western-Music/
Burrows, Donald. 2016. "Handel, Walsh, and the Publication of 'Messiah'." Music & Letters 97 (2): 221-248. https://doi.org/10.1093/ml/gcw049
Henleverlag. “Music Engraving on Metal Plates (with sound).” YouTube video, 11:31. March 14, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvyoKdW-Big
Hoyett, Sabrina. “How a Gutenberg printing press works.” YouTube video, 6:48. March 3, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLctAw4JZXE
Music Printing History. "Music Printing History.", accessed September 13, 2019, https://www.musicprintinghistory.org/
Plesske, Hans-Martin. "Breitkopf & Härtel." Grove Music Online. 2001; Accessed 26 Sep. 2019.
This post was adapted from a paper submitted by the author for a course in Rare Books at the University of North Texas, Spring 2019.
About the Author
Jayme Nelson is a graduate student in library science at Texas Woman's University, with a focus on archives and special collections. She plays bassoon in the Austin Symphonic Band and serves as a collections volunteer at the Austin History Center, a local city archive. She is currently completing her practicum with the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History in Austin, TX.
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